Twelve Years' War

The Twelve Years War was a major war fought between 1702-1721 and taking place primarily within Continental Europe. The war saw a coaltion of the English (Great Britain after 1707), Austrians, and Dutch face an alliance between France and Spain, with each side being joined by their German allies, respectively. While the wars official cause were French claims too the throne of Westphalia, the war had numerous complex political motives, including increasing political and military aggression within Germany and a threatening alliance between France and Spain. Great Britain hoped to gain oversees colonies in North America and the Caribbean, Louis XIV of France hoped too strengthen French influence in the numerous German states, while the Austrians hoped too limit this French aggression.

The war had numerous temporary ceasefires, notably the Treaty of Orleans in 1711, but the wars official end came in 1714 with the Treaty of Mon. British sovereignty over Flanders, Cuba, and Florida was officially acknowledged by the Continental Powers (France, Spain), while Louis XIVs brother's claim too the Westphalian throne was accepted by Great Britain and Austria.

Background
The Tweleve Years War can trace its roots too the series of dynastical conflicts occuring in the late 17th century, most notably the War of Devolution and the War of the Grand Alliance. Both saw a coalition between the Austrians, Dutch, Spain and numerous German states face Louis XVI's France. England would join the Allied coalition in 1688 with William III's ascension too the throne of England in the Glorious Revolution. It was primarilly Louis XVI's increasing territorial aggression in the 'Germanies,' that drove the formation of the Alliance, but despite the powerful players arrayed against him, Louis XVI and the strong French army managed too retain the status quo ante, and by the end of the War of the Grand Alliance in 1697 France still controlled the region of Alsace-Lorraine.

The Grand Alliance threatened too collapse in 1701, with the untimely death of King Charles II of Spain, who died without an heir. Louis XIV's grandson Charles II's claims too the Spanish throne further destabilized the Alliance, and Louis XVI hoped too exploit the indecision and weakness by increasing his influence in the German states. In November of 1702, King Jean Blucher of Westphalia died, and Louis XVI nominated Maximilian III, Blucher's second cousin, too the throne of Westphalia, hoping too gain and ally and vassal in the Upper Rhine. Realizing the danger of a French-allied monarch in Westphalia, Leopold VI of Austria nominated Ferdinand of Bohemia too succeed Blucher. Although the majority of Westphalian's preferred a Habsburg-allied ruler, Ferdinand had no connection too the royal-bloodline, resulting in the nomination of Maximilian in November of 1702. Afraid of Westphalian resistance too Maximilian's ascension, a small French army under Marshal Tallard entered Westphalia and was stationed on the Rhine.

While neither England or the Netherlands cared about the issue of Westphalian succession, the entrance of French troops into Westphalia was deemed a major threat and a sign of Louis XVI's continued aggression. In The Hague in December of 1702, William III of England, Leopold VI of Austria along with an array of minor German princes attended a conference intended too discuss the issue of Westphalian succession. After several weeks of meetings which were disrupted by the temporary attendance of Frances de Lyon, a French noble sent by Louis XVI to represent him, the Grand Alliance issued the Verdict of 1702, demanding that Louis XVI withdraw all French troops from Westphalia and called for a second vote within Westphalia, a demand which threatened Maximilian's already unpopular succession. The deadline for Louis XVI's compliance with the accord was December 25th, 1702, and when there was no sign of French troop withdrawal from within Westphalia England, the United Provinces, and Austria simultaneously declared war against France.

Campaign of 1703
Actual fighting began slowly, within minor skirmishes taking place along the Upper Rhine between Hanoeveran forces and those of Marshal Tallard stationed in Westphalia. Since the official decloration of war in December a Austrian army had been gathering in Prague under the Magrave of Baden-Baden, and in early March they began a campaign in Eastern Bavaria, devastating farmland and defeated the Bavarian army under Maximillian II Emmanuel at Deggendorf and Kotzing in April. The Magrave then split his forces, sending the Count of Starhemberg north too Regensburg while the Margrave march along the Danube with the bulk of the Austrian army. By early May, Austrian outposts reached the outskirts of Munich itself.

Louis XVI's hadn't expected the quick Austrian mobilization and the 1703 Invasion of Bavaria caught him off guard. With Marshal Tallard committed on the Upper Rhine, Louis XVI's was forced too divert a contingent of the French Italian army north too rescue the Bavarians, who he feared would capitulate once Munich was besieged. On April 29th, Duc de Villars led 25,000 French troops north, force marching through the Swiss Alps and arriving in Bavaria after only fifteen days. The arrival of Villars and his reinforcements in mid-May surprised the Margrave of Baden-Baden, who found himself vastly outnumbered following a wave of Bavarian recruits. The Margrave ordered a withdrawal after his southern flank was threatened and his rearguard was defeated by Villars in sharp engagements at Mulhdorf and in the Second Battle of Deggendorf. The Margrave re-entered Austrian territory in June, his army exhausted and having sustained major casualties. Although Prague was practically unprotected, Villars was forced too turn north too deal with the Count of Starhemberg, who's army was still raiding Northern Bavaria. Starhemberg reentered Austrian territory in early July having escaped unscathed by Villars.

In June, Villars had appealed too Marshal Tallard too invade Prague from Westphalia, but Tallard refused on the grounds that he needed to defend the Rhine against an expected Hanoverian offensive, something which never came. The opportunity was lost when the Margrave entered Prague with a reinforced Austrian army. Following this event, Villars left Bavaria in August, leaving 15,000 French troops under the command of Maximilian II too defend Bavaria.

Taking command of the French Army of Italy, Villars planned a major fall offensive against Venice, a Austrian ally who had prevented French offensive actions in Northern Italy throughout the spring and summer. Villars led 34,000 French troops and 150 guns into Savoy in September, and after a week of tense negotiations they were given temporary military access. Emulating his march to Bavaria earlier in the year, the French army covered some twenty-miles daily, catching the Austro-Venetian Army under the Prince Eugene of Savoy off-guard and defeating it in the Battle of Legnano. Prince Eugene began a rapid withdrawal, and his army managed too escape Northern Italy intact, entering Udine in October. Following Eugene's abandonment Venice was besieged in early November and capitulated on November 9th. Villars settled in Venice for winter quarters, the campaign season deemed over.

At sea, there was little decisive fighting 1703. French Admiral d'Roberte led a twelve-French ships out of Calais in spring, and outmaneuvered the English Channel Fleet, blockading it in the Thames River. However, d'Roberte failed too explot this advantage and was forced too withdraw when the an English fleet under Edward Russell returned from the Irish Sea after defeating a smaller French fleet off the coast of Ireland which had been sent too disrupt English shipping lanes. Following his retreat, d'Roberte led his fleet north and blockaded Glasgow, where the French channel fleet would remain for a year.

Campaign of 1704
The year 1704 opened with major fighting along the Upper Rhine. While skirmishing and raiding had occurred between Hanover and the French Armiee de Rhin under Marshal Tallard, it was only with the arrival of a small Austrian force under the Margrave of Badden-Badden that heavy fighting began. A surprise Austrian winter offensive in early January trapped a contingent of the Westphalian army at Padderborn when a Dutch force advanced south, leading too the surrender of some 7,000 Westphalian troops in early February. However, the offensive lost traction once the Dutch departed back too the Netherlands, and the fortresses at Essen and Dortmund were both recaptured during a Franco-Westphalian counter-attack. However, the surrender at Padderborn was a major debacle, and it was theis failures that led too Marshal Tallard being replaced by the Duc of Luxembourg and Tallard being reassigned too the Army of Flanders, which had experienced little fighting in 1703.

Louis XIV and the French leadership planned for a series of major operations in 1704 with the hope of winning the war quickly and decisively. Following his consolidation over Northern Italy, Villars would go too Bavaria, leaving command of the Army of Italy too Duc de Villeroi. Villars, reinforced by a contingent of the Army of the Rhine, would lead a joint Franco-Bavarian offensive into Vienna with the hopes of knocking Austria out of the war. However, preparations for the offensive were slow.

William III of England had played only a minor role in the European theatre up until 1704, landing several thousand troops in Amsterdam in 1704, although they played no part in the fighting. However, with the Alliance faltering with French victories in Bavaria and North Italy, a larger English army known as the Army of Continental Intervention landed in December led by the Duke of Marlborough, marking the first time in a century a substantial English force had landed on the continent. Preparations for a major English offensive into Flanders began and in February Marlborough advanced into Belgium, marching along the Northern coast and taking Bruge. The French Army of Flanders had been in winter quarters since early December and was divided, with one 8,000-man contingent under the Marquis de Benedict encamped near Blankenberge and the bulk of the 60,000-strong army camped in Ghent. Marlborough, concealing his advance by taking relatively unknown side roads, moved on Benedict and his small French force, but the advance was delayed by a series of major snowstorms, allowing for Tallard too move north and meet with Benedict, engaging Marlborough in the Battle of Blankenberge. The battle was a major French defeat after which Tallard retreated west, entering France in March. Marlborough took Ostend following his victory and then proceeded south, capturing Brussels after an assault on March 29th.

The Battle of Blankenberge and the fall of the Spanish Netherlands were a major reverse for Louis XIV. The presence of the English army in Flanders disrupted lines of communication with the Army of the Rhine in Westphalia. It also thwarted plans for a possible French invasion of Vienna from Bavaria, as Louis was forced too commit any spare troops in the Army of the Rhine to defending the border fortresses on the border with Flanders. Louis XIV, believing Paris too be in danger and the French position too be critical, ordered a gradual withdrawal from Westphalia, hoping to be pull the Army of the Rhine back to Alsace-Lorraine and possibly counter-attack against Marlborough, who would hopefully be tied down taking the French border fortresses. The Margrave of Badden-Badden leapt at the opportunity too push across the Rhine, crossing the Rhine at Dusseldorf and advancing with 20,000 men as far as Bruggen before being stopped in the Battle of Viersen. But the French withdrawal continued regardless.

There was little fighting in the Italian theatre until August of 1704. While both factions leadership had become focused on the war in Flanders and the Upper Rhine, Prince Eugene of Savoy planned a major counter-offensive, as the Austrians had been completely ejected from Northern Italy the year earlier. Leaving the Count of Starhemberg on Italian-Croatian border, Eugene led about 20,000 Austrians north too Innsbruck, the force being swelled too nearly 40,000 by Hungarian conscripts who had joined the war effort after an appeal by Leopold I in January.

With Villars northern flank nearly unprotected, Eugene force-marched through the Alps unopposed and arriving in Bolzano in late September, disrupting Villars lines of communication. With his lines of communication and supply threatened, Villars sent a small French army under Villeroi too engage what he perceived as a minor threat. However, Villeroi was defeated in the Battle of Asaigo, and although Villars was able too drive back Eugene in a series of manuevers and skirmishes in the Fifteen Days Campaign, Eugene avoided any decisive battles and so Villars, his troops scattered and the second Austrian army under the Count of Starhemberg advancing on his rear, was forced to withdraw from Venice. Despite Eugene's newfound numerical superiority he made no major attempts too disrupt the vulnerable retreat, possibly out of his troops exhaustion. Following the French retreat, Eugene, his army swelled too nearly 60,000, moved on Milan, which had been held by Spain for over a century and was protected by only a small garrison. Facing destruction, the Spanish leadership agreed too the Accord of Lodi, where the Spanish monarchs agreed too halt all hostilities with Austria in exchange for a stop in Spanish aid too Louis XIV. This agreement would mark the end of major campaigning in Northern Italy for the year and also begin the gradual decline of Spain as a major player in the war.

Campaigning in Flanders continued until winter with the strenuous challenge of breaking through the French border fortress line. Marlborough, jointed by Dutch and German reinforcements led by Leopold of Hesse-Kassel, split his forces and began taking these fortresses one-by-one. Despite suffering reverses against the Fortress of Mons, Tournai fell in October and by winter the French had been all but ejected from the now English-held Spanish Netherlands.

Campaign 1705
In the opening months of 1705 the French found themselves in a precarious strategic situation. Marlboroughs offensive into Flanders had driven the French Army of Flanders from the region and was threatening the French position on the Rhine, and the French advances in North Italy made in 1703 had been reversed with Eugene of Savoys counter-offensive. Louis XIV, however, had plans too finally achieve a decisive victory over the Alliance a war of attrition began. Moving Villars up from Barcellonette, he would take command of the Army of the Rhine, which had recently completed a withdrawal from Westphalia. A three-pronged offensive would then be launched against Marlborough in Flanders: Villars would covertly move a large contingent of the Army of the Rhine north while a Spanish army under Enrique de Leon would land on the coast near Ostend and advance south. A small army raised from the French reserves would move from Lille, trapping Marlborough and crushing him in Flanders.

Unlike French plans for 1705, the Allies had no coordinated strategy for 1705. The English had the goal of consolidating their control over Flanders, while the Austrians hoped too possibly push into France itself from their base in North Italy and hopefully even knock Bavaria out of the war with a major offensive.

Campaigning in 1705 began with continued fighting around the Upper Rhine regions as the Austrians and Hanoverians under the Magrave continued to gradually push into Westphalia, although their advance was slow due too the Westphalians unexpected resistance, displayed in the Battle of Nord in March.

While there was little action on the Rhine and Flemish fronts in the spring, the Northern Italian theatre was unexpectedly active. Hoping to establish an Austrian foothold in Southern France, in early April Eugene of Savoy moved across the French border with some 40,000 men. Marshal Boufflers had recently assumed command of the French Army of Italy, and the worn-out army was scattered along the Franco-Italian border, although a nucleus had formed at Manosque, where Boufflers commanded from. Eugene attempted too conceal his advance through the use of relatively unknown side roads. However, French scouts spotted the Austrian column and Eugene lost a strategic level of surprise. The campaign culminated in the Battle of Manosque in May, and in the aftermath of the defeat Eugene retreated back too Savoy, his army still intact, as the cautious Boufflers had chosen not too pursue. There was little other fighting in the Italian theatre.

The Flemish front was relatively quite until about August, when the French began moving on Marlborough, who had been besieging Mons since May. Villars had arrived in Alsace-Lorraine in May, reorganizing the Army of the Rhine and planning out the offensive against Marlborough. By mid-August, the Franco-Spanish armies were in position, with a Spanish army under Enrique de Leon due too arrive at Ostend in a week. Villars moved with some 35,000 men, taking Luxembourg without a shot fired and moving into Belgium itself. Marlborough had neglected too protect his southern flank, so Liege fell too Villars in early-September with only limited resistance. However, the Spanish force had been delayed by the presence of the British Channel Squadron under Edward Russell on the Belgian coast, and with Villars isolated in Flanders, Marlborough moved a large section of his army east, linking up with a Dutch force at Mechelen before intercepting Villars at Leuven in September, defeating him in a decisive battle. Villars began an uncoordinated retreat, his rearguard being beaten at Ramillies and then Rochefort, with Villars himself being captured at Rochefort. Hearing of the defeat of Villars, with the Spanish fleet withdrawing from the Channel in October. After pursuing the shattered remains of the Army of the Rhine into Alsace-Lorraine, Marlborough turned back, finally capturing Mons in October.

1706-1711
By, 1706, both sides were exhuasted by years of protracted conflict. Within Britain, Parliament had grown increasingly unpopular along with the pro-war administration of George I. Although Britains Channel Fleet was far superior too that of the French, they failed too gain a decisive advantage and so the French were able too survive the so-called British, 'blockade.'

The loss of the French Army of the Rhine at Leuven was a major disaster for Louis XIV, and in spring he began pulling what remained of the Army of the Rhine from Alsace-Lorraine, preparing for an expected Allied Invasion of France. While there had been little fighting in Westphalia on the Upper Rhine fronts in 1705, the complete French withdrawal by the end of winter and the gradual collapse of King Maximillians already fragile popularity allowed the Margrave of Badden-Badden too make serious gains against the Westphalian's, his forces reaching the outskirts of Cologne in August. However, the untimely Death of Emperor Leopold I in August caused a minor succession crisis, delaying any more Allied advances along the Upper Rhine front.

In Flanders, the temporary 'leave,' of Marlborough delayed any major actions, but upon his return in September plans for a major joint-Allied offensive against Alsace-Lorraine were made, a victory which would completely isolate Frances German Allies and ensure the fall of Westphalia. In October, a Anglo-Dutch army under the command of Dermot Benbow advanced from Luxembourg, advancing quickly and arriving in Stuttgart in November too find that the French had abandoned the cities defenses, manning the scattered forts along the border. Following this minor victory the Allies presumed the campaign was finished for the year, withdrawing about half of their forces in Alsace-Lorraine and leaving Benbow with only a small force.

However, despite making little offensive action during the majority of the year, the French Jean-Victor Leonatre, who had taken command of the French armies following Villars' capture, saw an opportunity too retake Alsace-Lorraine with a coordinated offensive. Leading a portion of the newly-formed French Army of the Marne, Leonatre outmaneuvered Benbow will avoiding any decisive battles. Then, in January, a Westphalian force advanced from the East, and Benbow was forced too retreat from Alsace-Lorraine all-together, Marlborough unable too aid him due to the heavy snow fall.

The campaigns of 1707 were even less eventful then those of 1706, with fighting having virtually stopped in Northern Italy and the Austrians withdrawing too Venice. Eugene of Savoy had departed the army in December, going too Vienna and leaving the army under the command of Count of Starhemberg. Eugene had left to Vienna too oversee preperations for an invasion of Bavaria set too occur in late summer. However, in May a Prussian army under King Fredrick I invaded Northern Silesia using the pretext of the 1537 Treaty of Silesia. Within weeks, Silesia had been rapidlly overrun, with Wroclaw falling too Prussian forces in early June. Eugene was quickly diverted, taking his gathering army north too face the Prussian threat. This manuever effectively ended Austrian participation in the war, although funds and supplies would continue too be poured into the Allied cause.

In Flanders, Marlborough finally made a move against France itself, the French fortress-line having been finally been pierced at Mons in 1705. With the English Pariliement in fierce debate on whether too continue the war effort on such a large scale, Marlborough sent Dermot Benbow with around 14,000-men too occupy the series of sparsely protected forts on the French side of the border while taking the town of Lillie. Fort Maubeauge fell quickly and reports indicate that English pickets reached Amiens. However, recognizing the threat, Leontre moved from Paris with around 20,000 men, hoping too destroy Benbow, a victory which would allow the French too regain past losses in Flanders. However, Benbow withdrew quickly, abandoning Maubeauge and Lillie. There was only scattered fighting along the border now.

With little actual fighting in 1707, 1708 began with major plans for the Allies. With Parliament having ruled in December of 1707 too pull nearly half of the British forces from Flanders by Easter of 1709, some 15,000 troops, Marlborough decided too launch an invasion of France. Marlborough had hoped too launch an invasion since 1707, but the minimal gains of Benbow in the campaign of '07 and Austria's basic withdrawal from the Allies had caused complications in his plan.

However, Marlborough was aware that a complete French collapse was imminent. A series of mass mutinies in the French armies throughout the winter, while put down harshly, had caused morale within the army too drop, and desertions reached new heights. Louis XIV had even faced dissent within his own court, and a number of nobles, including the Duc of Luxembourg, called for an end to the war which was ruining France's economy. However, Louis XIV refused, preferring too fight to the end.

The invasion was underway by May. Marlborough had planned for the invasion too be a pincer-movement: Benbow would lead 13,000 men from Mons into Northern France, taking Lille before advancing too the Marne, while Marlborough led a Anglo-German force of 21,000 west from Alsace-Lorraine and into eastern France, crossing Loire at Orleans and marching on Paris.

Benbow advanced first, capturing Lillie for the second time and advancing with his army quickly to Amiens. However, Leontre moved unexpectedly fast, and in June marched around Benbow's southern flank in a series of sharp skirmishes. Benbow, determining that he was outnumbered, ordered a retreat. However, just as the French celebrated their second repulsion of Benbow, news reached them of Marlborough's advance too Orleans. In the Battle of Orleans, Marlborough forced a crossing against the 2,000-strong French holding force. In a series of hasty forced marches, Leontre marched south, retracing their steps, and caught Marlborough at Melun, a mere 20-miles from the outskirts of Paris. In the resulting Battle of Melun, Leontre was defeated, and his exhausted army reentered Paris. Marlborough entered the Parisian suburbs, but before he could advance any farther a ceasefire was called.

In a series of desperate meetings outside Paris, Louis XIV agreed too an unconditional ceasefire. In the Treaty of Orleans two months later, a conference, including delegates from Austria, the United Provinces, Britain, France, and Spain, agreed on a peace treaty in which Louis XIV agreed to a series of humiliating concessions: a withdrawal of French claims to Alsace-Lorraine, and a complete French withdrawal of all support too Maximilian of Westphalia.